 We
take you back to 1938 and introduce you to Dr. Henry Murray.
Dr. Murray invented a psychological test called the TAT, or
Thematic Apperception Test. The TAT is comprised of a series
of 8 1/2 x 11 cards. On each card is a black and white picture.
The first card has a picture of a little girl staring intently
at a violin. Dr. Murray would show these cards to his subjects,
or his clients, asking them to tell a short story on what
they thought each card was about. Murray noticed a significant
difference in the stories told by successful and unsuccessful
individuals. According to their own definition, successful
individuals were people who were happy in their lives, moving
toward their goals, and optimistic about the future. Unsuccessful
individuals, according to their definition, were unhappy in
their lives, either moving away from their goals or without
goals, and pessimistic about what they could accomplish in
the future.
When Murray showed the card depicting the little girl staring
intently at the violin, unsuccessful people typically told
the following story:
"This is the story of a little girl who is very disappointed.
She’s been struggling to learn to play the violin but she
can’t do it. It’s just too difficult. She’s upset and she’s
going to tell her mother and father she doesn't want to take
violin lessons anymore. She feels frustrated that she’s tried
to play it and has failed. She’s feeling discouraged about
the whole thing."
Contrast this story with the one typically told by successful
individuals:
"This is the story of a little girl who intends to
play the violin. It’s a very challenging instrument to master
but she is determined to learn how to play it – one note at
a time. In her mind, in her imagination she sees herself playing
to appreciative audiences all over the world, culminating
in loud applause."
Henry Murray
- Thinking & Behavior
When
Murray studied the two types of stories told by unsuccessful
and successful individuals, he realized the link between one’s
inner world and one’s outer world. Murray was one of the original
psychologists to postulate a direct, observable link between
thinking and behavior. What we think about, we bring about
and our inner world has a direct bearing on our outer world.
From
Murray's research, including analysis of the content of the
stories given in response to the TAT, Murray (1938) developed
a list of human psychological needs that lead to particular
personality traits. These needs are relevant to later studies
of motivation and personality. Each results in a tendency
to behave in a particular way. For your reference, here are
the psychological needs identified by Murray:
Achievement. A person operating from this
need strives to accomplish something difficult, to do something
for the first time, to win over others. This is the type of
person whom McClelland describes as having high need for
achievement (denoted as n’Ach). Such
a person tends to be an entrepreneur or self-employed. He
or she enjoys being measured on the basis of results.
Affiliation. This person seeks to develop
close relationships with others. It is important to this person
to be a loyal friend or employee. He or she would prefer to
work in a group and would want to form close relationships
with co-workers and to identify with the group work.
Aggression. A tendency to attack, injure,
or punish others - to overcome opposition forcefully - characterizes
a person with this need. This individual seeks opportunities
to beat the competition and make rivals look bad.
Autonomy. To act independently and be free
of constraints is the goal of people with a high need for
autonomy. They want to be in control of their jobs or their
areas of responsibility and they want to have full responsibility
for results. They can be found employed as branch managers,
as field representatives, as consultants, and in research
and development work. Because of their aversion to being closely
supervised, many of them prefer to be self-employed.
Dominance. People with high needs for dominance
will attempt to control their human environments. They will
attempt to influence others to accept their way of thinking,
often by forceful methods. They will volunteer to be the leader
or will attempt to take charge in group events. Such people
may attempt to manipulate others for their own advantage.
Exhibition.
The goal of this type of person is to make an impression on
others - to be noticed, to excite, to entertain, or to elicit
a reaction from others. A person in whom this need is strong
will engage in self-promotion. If emotionally immature, such
a person will become the office clown or the “life of the
party."
Nurturance. Nurturing people find satisfaction
in helping, supporting, and taking care of those who are more
needy or more disadvantaged than they. They literally enjoy
the role of nurse, and they tend to be overprotective of subordinates.
Order. An orderly person likes to arrange
things carefully; put them in order; and keep them clean,
neat, and precise. Such a person may enjoy data collection
and analysis or other forms of computational work. This person
probably keeps his or her desk clean and tidy. People who
are very orderly may not be highly creative.
Power. People with a high need for power
attempt to control both people and resources. They tend to
desire fame and recognition and may focus their lives on attaining
high stature in their respective fields. They may exhibit
this orientation by means of clothing, automobiles, and surroundings
that contribute to their "power" images.
Reference: Murray, H.A. (1938) Explorations in Personality.
New York: Oxford University Press
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